Hochschilds Emotional Labour Theory

Hochschilds Emotional Labour Theory Emotional labour was first put forward by sociologist Arlie Hochschild in 1983 in her classic book, The Managed Heart. Hochschilds (1983) thesis mostly focuses on the job of flight attendants and bill collectors where she described the work involved in being nasty or nice and have also been expressed as toe and heel of the growing service sector (Cited in Steinberg Figart, 1999: 9) , also implying call centre, which has been targeted for analysis purpose in this study. Repercussions of rapid growing call centres globally have highlighted the importance of the service industry in recent years, whereby organisations accentuate on service quality where the impact is mostly upon selling a service with a smile. This new work organisation focuses on creating a pleasant service interaction for the clients or customers through good and pleasant customer service representative (CSR). As such, service employees are expected to regulate the emotional expression and display certain pre-establis hed and contextually appropriate emotions as per the organisations norms and culture while interacting with customers due to the nature and characteristics of the job as well as the work environment  [1]  . According to Steinberg Figart (1999), emotional labour emphasis is laid on the relational rather than task-based aspect of work, principally found in service economies. It is labour-intensive, it is skilled, effort-intensive, and productive labour. It creates value, affects productivity, and generates profit Steinberg Figart (1999) For such type of emotional labour, wage is their reward; that is, they get paid for their emotional work demands specifically for performing Emotional Labour (Grandey Brauburger, 2002; Zapf, 2002). Most of interactions nowadays include emotional labour (Gibson, 1997; Pugliesi Shook, 1997). For long emotions have been of interest to psychologists and sociologists (Hochschild, 1983; Thoits, 1990), but recently they have been of particular interest to organisational researchers (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993, 1995; Fineman, 1993; Morris Feldman, 1996, 1997). Arlie Hochschild (1983:7) defined emotional labour as the management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display (Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). She also points to the need for an employee to induce or suppress feeling in order to sustain the outward countenance that produces the proper state of mind in others (1983 Cited in Murphy McClure, 2007:7). Emotional labour is demarcated as having different characteristics that may be analysed along different dimensions. Firstly, it requires a personal contact external or within organisations entailing either face-to-face or voice-to-voice client contact (Zapf, 2002; Steinberg Figart, 1999). Emotional labour also requires a worker to produce an emotional state in another person while at the same time managing ones own emotions (Steinberg Figart, 1999:13  [2]  ). Initially, Hochschild (1983) pointed to facial and bodily displays that were observable but further, researchers broaden the view including words , voice tone and other behaviours shaped by efforts undertaken by the person (Wharton Erickson, 1993). Emotional expression is required to follow certain rules, that is, display rules of the organisation (Grandey Brauburger, 2002; Humphrey, 2000; Zapf, 2002). This directs to the alignment of emotional labour with call centre environment due to their respective characteristics such as voice-to-voice or face-to-face, emotions expressed and following display rules during interactions for customer satisfaction. Ashforth Humphreys (1993, 1995) contribution to emotional labour have pushed forward Hochschilds thesis by incorporating the concept of social identity into their study of emotions in the workplace. They define emotional labour as the act of displaying the appropriate emotion (1993:90). Their definition differs from Hochschilds definition as they focus on behaviour rather than on the presumed emotions underlying behaviour (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:90) because they see it as a possibility to conform to display rules without the employee having to manage feelings (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:90). Their focus is on what the employee should feel at work instead of focusing on feeling rules (Hochschild, 1983), which leads us to display rules which are generally a function of societal norms, occupational norms, and organisational norms  [3]  (Rafaeli Sutton, 1989) (Figure 1). Figure 1: Rafaeli Suttons Factors that influence Emotions Expressed by Role Occupants. Source: Rafaeli, A., Sutton, R. I., The expression of emotion in organisational life, Research in Organisational Behaviour, Vol. 11, p.5. Copyright (1989) Surface Acting and Deep Acting: Hochschild (1979, 1983) argued that emotional labour is performed in one of two ways. First, the service provider may act in accordance with display rules through Surface Acting, which involves Simulating emotions that are not actually felt, which is accomplished by careful presentation of verbal and non verbal cues, such as facial expression, gestures and voice tone. Ashforth Humphrey (1993:92) Hereby, the service agents simulate emotions that are not felt by the latter. However, surface acting does not mean that the agent do not experiences any emotion but instead a display emotion that is not felt (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). This causes a discrepancy between felt and displayed emotion as we will discuss in this study. There are also cases where the agent is or is not particularly concerned about the welfare of the customer which is referred to as faking in good faith and faking in bad faith by Rafaeli Sutton (1987: 32 Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Surface acting can also be part of acting typically discussed as Impression Management (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993) and this converges with Goffmans dramaturgical analysis of daily encounters (Goffman, 1959, 1969). The second means of complying with display rules is through Deep Acting, which involves a service agent attempting to actually experience or feel the emotions that one wishes to display (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:93). Deep acting can also be described as actors psyche themselves for a role in the same way, the service provider psyches himself or herself for a desired emotion (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:93). Surface acting focuses on ones outward behaviour, deep acting focuses on ones inner feelings (Hochschild, 1983). The concept of surface and deep acting refer to The effort or act of trying to display the appropriate emotion, not the outcomes that is, the quality of the effort and the effects this effort has on target audience Hochschild (1979)  [4]   Further, the efforts may become effortless, for instance, in call centre works, the pre-described scripts and repetitive nature of the work makes deep and surface acting such that emotional labour becomes relatively effortless (Ashforth Fried, 1988 Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). In the same vein, Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) include the spontaneous and genuine emotions in his conceptualisation of emotional labour, which explains the instances where a service agent spontaneously and genuinely experiences and expresses the expected emotion Ashforth and Humphrey (1993:94). The service provider may naturally feel what he or she was expected to express without having to fake the emotion as per Hochschild (1983) thesis. Ashforth and Humphreys perception was no compliance but instead, a natural expression of feelings, for instance, a nurse who feels sympathy at the sight of an injured child has no need to act' (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:94). Grandey (2000) provides another conceptualisation of emotional labour  [5]  in an attempt to refine the construct of emotional labour and the display rules involved. She defines emotional labour as: the process of regulating both feelings and expression for organisational goals (2000: 97). Grandey (2000) argued that previous conceptualisation of emotional labour does not include the emotion management process that employees undertake to conform to organisational display rules. She also developed a model to illustrate her conceptualisation of emotional labour which is based on the emotion regulation lab studies and emotional labour field studies. The situational cues of her model illustrated below (Figure 2) include the interactions expectations based on frequency, duration, variety, and display rules based upon Morris Feldman Dimensions of Emotional Labour (1997). Figure 2: Grandeys Emotion Regulation Process Source: Grandey, A.A., Emotion Regulation in the Workplace: A new Way to conceptualise Emotional Labour, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 5, No. 1, p.95-110. Dimensions of Emotional Labour: Morris Feldman (1996) also contributed to the conceptualisation of emotional labour. They define emotional labour as the effort, planning, and control needed to express organisationally desired emotion during interpersonal transactions (Morris Feldman, 1996: 987). Their perception of emotional labour differs from Hochschilds thesis in the sense that instead of focusing of the management of feeling (Hochschild, 1983), they instead, focus on expressive behaviour, because it is appropriate expressive behaviour that is organisationally desired (Morris Feldman, 1996:988). The level of planning, control, and skill that are required in organisations to display appropriate emotions is what has much significance to them (Morris Feldman, 1996 Cited in Lewig Dollard, 2003). So, Morris Feldman (1996) conceptualise the construct of emotion labour along four dimensions  [6]  (Figure 3) namely, the frequency of appropriate emotional display, the attentiveness to required display rules, va riety of emotions to be displayed, and emotional dissonance. Figure 3: Morris Feldman Four Dimensions of Emotional labour Source: Morris, J.A., Feldman D.C., The Dimensions, Antecedents, and Consequences of Emotional Labour, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 21, No. 4, p.986-1010. Consequences of Emotional Labour: Though emotional labour can create economic benefits for the organisations and the individual such as self-efficacy and task effectiveness, it can also and most probably, has negative consequences on both physical and mental health on the employees. Positive Consequences: Staw et al. (1994) emphasized that employees with positive emotions will be more successful in organisations than employees with negative emotions. Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) proposed that expression of positive emotions is related to increased task effectiveness. They discussed that compliance with display rules facilitates task effectiveness if the emotions displayed by service provider is the emotion is alleged to be sincere to a certain extent (Rafaeli Sutton, 1989; Feldman, 1984; Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Ashforth Humphrey (1993) propose that emotional labour can increase self efficacy of the employees and also increase personal well-being by fulfilling task requirements and task effectiveness  [7]  . In the same vein, they noted that by fulfilling social expectations, emotional labour makes interactions more predictable and avoids embarrassing interpersonal problems that might otherwise disrupt interactions (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:94). Rafaeli Sutton (1987) also found that positive emotions of service employee brings about immediate sale, or cause revisit of customers and can be beneficial to the organisation t hrough word of mouth. Ashforth Humphrey (1993) also argued that emotional labour may facilitate self-expression. This is due to the certain degree of autonomy in the enactment of display rules. They disputed that at least some of the authentic self were projected by the service agents into the enactment, for example, Jackall (1978) described how bank tellers modified organisationally directed display rules to suit their own interpersonal styles (Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Thus, this may facilitate self-expression. The expressions of positive emotions by service employees also influence outcomes that are prominent to the role occupant like financial wellbeing, mental and physical well being (Rafaeli Sutton, 1987). Staw et al. (1994) also found that employees expressing positive emotions are often more appreciated and receive favourable evaluations and better pay than those with negative expressions. Cote and Morgan (2002) also supported that positive emotions can increase job satisfaction as ser vice employees displaying such emotions are judged by others as sociable, pleasant, and likeable (Staw et al, 1994). And this supports organisations as service employees are in better positions to gain control over demanding customers (Mishra, 2006). Negative Consequences: Emotional labour is a double-edge sword (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Most studies undertaken reflected the negative aspects of emotional labour which is more inflicting on individual mental and physical well-being, and eventually affects organisational needs. Emotional Dissonance, Burnout, and Emotional exhaustion: Emotional labour can become dysfunctional for the worker when dissonance between felt emotions and displayed emotions is experienced (Lewig Dollard, 2003:268). This discrepancy between felt and display emotion is termed as emotional dissonance (Lewig Dollard, 2003). Hochschilds (1983) interest in emotional labour derived from what she argues as pernicious effects of both surface acting and deep acting on the labourer (Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:96). Displaying emotions that are not felt, creates a sense of strain, resulting in what Hochschild (1983) termed as emotive dissonance or cognitive dissonance. Hochschild (1983:90) defined emotional dissonance as maintaining a difference between feeling and feigning. This discrepancy is common because even though display rules regulate expressive behaviour, they cannot regulate expressive experience (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:97). According to Ashforth Humphrey (1993:96), emotional dissonance may cause the individual to feel false an d hypocritical  [8]  . In due course, this dissonance could lead to personal and work-related maladjustment such as low self-esteem, depression, cynicism, and alienation from work (Lewig Dollard, 2003)  [9]  . Correspondingly, Ashforth Humphrey argued that deep acting may impair ones sense of authentic self (1993, p.97) and ones well-being, leading to self-alienation. They disputed that as a person loses touch of its authentic self, this may damage ones ability to express genuine expression (Ashforth, 1989). Finally, according to Ashforth and Frieds Study (1988) of mindlessness, with each interaction, deep acting becomes difficult for the service provider  [10]  . Many studies have been undertaken upon the link between emotional dissonance, emotional exhaustion, and burnout and results have been very prominent (Pierce, 1996; Pugliesi, 1999; Pugliesi Shook, 1997). Morris and Feldmans study also made an impact on this relationship (Figure 4), explaining the antecedents and consequences of emotional labour. Figure 4 shows the link that Morris and Feldman (1996) illustrated, taking emotional dissonance as the fourth dimension of the emotional labour construct which leads to emotional exhaustion and job dissatisfaction. Figure 4: Morris Feldman Antecedents and Consequences of Emotional labour Source: Morris, J.A., Feldman D.C., The Dimensions, Antecedents, and Consequences of Emotional Labour, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 21, No. 4, p.986-1010. Emotional exhaustion is a specific stress-related reaction, and is a key component of burnout (Maslach, 1982 Cited in Morris Feldman, 1996). Emotional exhaustion refers to a state of depleted energy caused by excessive emotional demands (Saxton, Phillips, Blakeney, 1991, Cited in Morris Feldman, 1996, p.1002) made on service providers interacting with customers or clients. It has also been associated with withdrawal behaviour and decreases in productivity (Cordes Dougherty, 1993; Jackson, Schwab Schuler, 1986). Lewig and Dollard (2003) found that emotional dissonance intensifies the level of emotional exhaustion at high levels of psychological demands, indicating that jobs having more emotional demands result in more emotional dissonance, hence more emotional exhaustion  [11]  . Maslachs (1982) work also suggests that greater planning for a wide variety of emotional displays is emotionally exhausting. Emotional exhaustion is a component of burnout, which is a stress found typically in service industries (Brotheridge Grandey, 2002; Grandey, 2000; Maslach, 1982). Hochschild (1983) indicated that burnout was a likely outcome for emotional labourers who identified too completely with their jobs (also see Maslach, 1982; Maslach Jackson, 1981). Initially, there is no standard definition of burnout, but most researchers conceptualisation of burnout refers to burnout as a syndrome consisting of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced personal accomplishment that results from interactions with people in some capacity (Maslach Schaufeli, 1993). The research supports that emotional labour is related to burnout and to emotional exhaustion specifically (Abraham, 1998, 1999c; Brotheridge Lee, 2002; Zapf et al., 2001). Similarly, Kruml Geddes (2000) examined the relationship between emotional dissonance and burnout and results proved that those faking their emotions risk becomin g emotionally exhausted. Job Satisfaction, Autonomy, and Performance: Previous theoretical work on emotional labour suggests that a negative relationship between emotional labour and job satisfaction. Hochschild (1983) argued that those employees suffering from burnout is usually a result of low autonomy and high job involvement, ultimately leading to low job satisfaction. According to Parkinson (1991), employees masking their felt emotions, lead to job dissatisfaction. This result from the consequences of emotional dissonance caused from the discrepancy between felt and displayed emotions which lead to exhaustion and burnout, eventually, affects job performance and job satisfaction  [12]  . Gendered Aspect of Emotional Labour: Work organisations and jobs are gendered (Acker, 1990) and this involves jobs requiring interactive work and emotional labour (Cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001). Traditionally, a differential form of emotional labour has been associated with jobs performed mostly by women. Nevertheless, Women do not experience more burnout or inauthenticity than men because of the type of jobs they perform, but rather because managing feelings of agitation have a different effect on women than it does on men. Erickson Ritter (2001:147) Thus, conventionally, Hochschild (1983) chose to study Flight Attendants and Bill Collectors as she believed these were jobs requiring high levels of emotional labour, or she wanted to illustrate the extent to which such jobs were emotionally gendered (Cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001) . As per Acker (1990), emotionally gendered jobs should display emotional patterns of emotional experience that should be distinctive for man and woman  [13]  . The gendered dimension of emotional labour can be illustrated through Rafaeli Sutton (1989) three norms, namely, the social norms, the occupational norms, and the organisational norms Social Norm: Historically, emotional expression has been differential in society and organisations, in that women have the tendency to perform more deferential forms of emotional labour than men (Erickson Ritter, 2001). Women are generally thought to be more expressive than men (Brody Hall, 1993). This issue was traditionally due to the social status of man and woman. Women are socialised to express most feelings freely except anger and man are expected to suppress all feelings but to express anger openly (Sharkin, 1993). In organisations, mens anger is often acceptable and it is generally characterised by shouting and yelling, whereas women express their anger differently and usually characterised by tears (Hoover Dempsey, Plas Wallston, 1986). Hochschild (1983: 163) suggested that woman have a weaker status shield against the displaced feeling of others (Cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001). According to Hochschild (1983), the absence of the social shield implies that women are more like to be e xposed to others anger and frustration and will lack the structural resources to fight back those emotional attacks  [14]  (cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001). Occupational Norms: Occupational norms regarding the appropriateness of emotional displays at work are typically learned during the professional socialisation process. The extents to which organisations have explicit display rules and monitor employees expressive behaviour will depend on the level of skill and training required to perform the work. Morris and Feldman (1996: 997) Elaine Hall (1993) and Robin Leidner (1991, 1993) studies also focused on the gendered dimension of emotional labour which reflected on the service of a restaurant  [15]  . They argued that this organisational behaviour structured the interaction of women servers as sexual objects (Cited in Steinberg Figart, 1999:16). Jennifer Pierce (1995) also echoed the gendered occupational dimension of emotional labour with her study of paralegals, where woman paralegals entailed in tremendous emotional labour job content  [16]  . Similarly, OBrien study (1994) of the nursing profession in Great Britain focused on this aspect of emotional labour where many of the skills possessed by nurses derived not from the qualities of being a nurse but from the qualities of being a woman  [17]   (1994:399). The case of call centres that have become a new organisational phenomenon nowadays is greatly emotionally gendered. The call centre industry quickly arrived at the realisation that women sell (Carter Butler, 2008:6). Foreseths (2005) study demonstrates how feelings are commoditized and womans femininity and sexuality are sold alongside the companys product such as airline tickets, hotel reservations amongst others (Cited in Carter Butler, 2008:6). Most often, women are expected to make use of their inherent caring and nurturing nature to persuade customers to purchase the products or service or assist customers in their inquiries and complaints (Brannan, 2005; Fernandez et. al., 2005: 894-895). These situations provide examples of how the issue of gender makes a difference in occupations and how with the use of display rules, the gendered dimension of emotional labour is strengthen (Fineman, 1996). National culture also play an important part on the gendered emotional labour depending on which type of policies organisations employ and where national culture shape organisational culture, hence influencing the emotional labour (Aaltio-Marjosola, 1994; Gheradi, 1994). Organisational Norms: An organisations culture will have the most persistent influence on display rules and associated emotions (Rafaeli Sutton, 1989; Van Maanen Kunda, 1989). Gender is implicated within these social norms, which vary by culture  [18]  (Steinberg Figart, 1999). Organisational culture consists Of symbols, beliefs, and patterns of behaviour learned, produced, and created by the people who devote their energies and labour to the life of an organisation Sprati (1992:342) Consequently, this pattern of behaviour, which of itself is gendered, is reflected in their tacit rejection of emotional feelings at work (Sprati, 1992). Aaltio-Marjosola (1994) noted that gender stereotypes are becoming cultural product of the organisation. Hence, where service providers are interacting in this context, they believe that they are acting in their own, but in fact they are acting as per organisational norms and emotional displays become part of compliance and not emotional attachment, and no commitment. In the context of emotional exchanges, emotional dissonance and its relationship to emotional exhaustion and burnout are important. Research indicates that not only women are required to engage in emotional labour more than man (Morris Feldman, 1997; Rafaeli Sutton, 1989; Wharton Erickson, 1993), but at the same time, it is clear that woman express more positive emotions toward other than man (Stoppard Gunn Gruchy, 1993). Man, on the other hand, is restricted to those emotions that are considered manly to the society. As discussed above through Rafaeli and Sutton three norms that demonstrate the gendered dimension of emotional labour, man and woman are expected different forms of emotional labours, so this lead to more emotional dissonance, more emotional exhaustion, and more burnout. The gendered aspects of emotional labour can also affect job satisfaction and is illustrated through Stenross and Kleinmans study of sheriff (1989) (Steinberg Figart, 1999). The Self and Emotional Labour: What is of utmost importance is how the self of the individual is mostly affected as a result of emotional labour. The relevant questions shifts from Hochschilds  [19]   How is the self eroded or alienated by commodification? to What kinds of selves are constructed through labour processes? What are the social possibilities for the construction of selves and relationship within a given organisation? and How do Workers creatively negotiate, build upon, and negate these parameters? Ashforth and Humphreys social identity theory (1993) described the social possibilities that may construct the self of an emotional labourer and its relationship to organisations levels. They argued that The self concept is comprised of a personal identity that encompasses distinctive characteristics and traits and a social identity encompassing salient group classifications  [20]  . Ashforth Humphrey (1993:98); Ashforth Mael (1989); Tajfel Turner (1985) Ashforth Humphrey (1993) also noted that individuals who define themselves in terms of social groups and idiosyncratic characteristics whose display rules are discrepant with those of the organisational role are more apt to experience emotive dissonance and self-alienation (p.99). The self is constructed and modified upon the social group the individual identifies himself or herself with. The more strongly one identifies with the role, the greater the positive impact that fulfilling those expectations has on ones psychological well-being  [21]   (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:99). Emotions are the construction of Identity but with deep and surface acting in emotional labour, this creates internal pressures on the individuals and eventually causes a dissonance (Richman, 1988; Sutton, 1991). Workers who construct emotional labour as performing a role do not have a sense of authenticity (Haman, 2005:89). The work of Michel Foucault is inevitable when talking about the self in emotional labour. His work mainly evolves the influences of power and control on the inner sphere of an individual. Foucault described the discourse of organisational and human needs and the case of emotional labour in service sectors has largely been a debatable subject. In performing service work, employees are not only consenting to degrading the self, they work on their own identities in ways that sometimes confirm with organisational norms, but very often do not. Whenever one is dealing with a multiplicity of individuals on whom a task or a particular form of behaviour must be imposed, the panoptic schema may be used Foucault (1977: 205) So, emotional labour is very well concerned with the foucauldian analysis, where display rules are imposed on the individual, the panoptic schema may be used. In late eighteenth century, Jeremy Bentham design a prison  [22]  , which was later adapted by Foucault, and the main idea behind the construct of the prison was to make the individual feel that they were constantly under carceral gaze and they would eventually internalise and disciplined and controlled themselves accordingly (Foucault, 1977: 201). He who is subjected to a field of visibility, and who knows it, assumes responsibility for the constraints of power; he makes them play spontaneously upon himself; he inscribes in himself the power relation in which he simultaneously plays both roles; he becomes principle of his own subjection Foucault (Discipline, 202-203) In early 1990s, the panopticon was perceived to be electronic in the workplace with new technologies advancements that increase ways of surveillance and monitoring through internet, telephones, ATMs. Credit cards, and the increasing number of surveillance cameras in urban spaces (Foucault, 1977). In fact, call centres are the best illustrations, where high emotional discrepancies are occurred as explained above in this study, has been perceived as heavy Foucauldian spin (Thompson, 2003) and the main conce

An Analysis of Characters in Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice Essay

An Analysis of Characters in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice An author will often give his or her work a title that reflects the overall theme or meaning of the piece-this is certainly the case in Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice. A title may set the mood or describe a situation which otherwise might require several paragraphs to develop. Pride and Prejudice is a combination of humor, irony, and twists of events. Austen entitles her work Pride and Prejudice to emphasize subtly the fact that most characters in the work have a certain degree of pride or prejudice. Among the characters who display these traits are Mr. Collins, Mr. Wickham, Lady Catherine de Bourgh, Miss Bingley, and, of course, Darcy and Elizabeth. Although Darcy and Elizabeth are the two central characters, and are the ones who are proud and prejudiced respectively, there are several others who are plagued with character flaws. At the opening of the story, Mr. Collins is introduced as the cousin of the Bennets who is coming to Longbourn for a visit. Mr. George Wickham is an officer introduced toward the beginning of the novel. Lady Catherine de Bourgh is the rich influential aunt of Mr. Darcy who tries to sabotage his engagement to Elizabeth. Miss Bingley is the person who thinks ill of the Bennets from their first meeting. These characters all have the problem of being either proud or prejudiced. Elizabeth most aptly describes Mr. Collins when she says he is "conceited, pompous, narrow-minded, [and] silly" (Austen 129). Austen says of Collins: the respect which he [feels] for [Lady Catherine's] high rank, and his veneration for her as his patroness, mingling with a very good opinion of himself, of his authority as a clergyman, and his right... ...orks Cited Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Franklin Center, PA: The Franklin Library, 1980. Joseph, Gerhard. "Prejudice in Jane Austen, Emma Tennant, Charles Dickens-and Us." Studies in English Literature 40.4 (Autumn 2000): 679-694. Online: lt;http://triton.libs.uga.edu/cgi-bin/galileo.cgi> Kliger, Samuel. "Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice in the Eighteenth-Century Mode." Twentieth-Century Interpretations of Pride and Prejudice. Ed. E. Rubinstein. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969. 54-57. Mansell, Darel. The Novels of Jane Austen: An Interpretation. New York: Harper & Row, 1973. Pinion, F. B. A Jane Austen Companion. London: Macmillan St. Martin's, 1973. Satz, Martha. "An Epistemological Understanding of Pride and Prejudice: Humility and Objectivity." Jane Austen: New Perspectives. Ed. Janet Todd. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1983.

Free Will Essay -- essays papers

Free Will â€Å"Free Will and its effect on the Greeks, Christians, and Romans† Free will is defined as: Voluntary choice or decision; freedom of humans to make choices that are not determined by prior causes or by divine intervention (Webster’s Online Collegiate Dictionary). Free will had an effect on the Greeks, Christians, and the Romans. Three stories, Oedipus the King, the Bible, and the Aenied, respectively, that we have studied and that fall in each society are examples of how free will is altered by different societies and how it effects their lives. Oedipus the King was written by a Greek, Sophocles. During this time, the Greeks believed that everything was done for the gods, they did not have free will over their lives. There are many examples in the play in which the gods are controlling and tell the people what they should do or how they should live their lives. At the end of the play Oedipus asks Creon to banish him from Thebes: Oedipus: Drive me out of Thebes, in exile. Creon: Not I. Only the gods can give you that. Oedipus: Surely the gods hate me so much- Creon: You’ll get your wish at once†¦(Oedipus 639 lines 1168-71). Creon and Oedipus discuss here how they have no control over their lives, decisions and all. The gods are the ones who make all of the choices. Oedipus, along with the rest of the Greeks, believed that he had no say in the way his life was going to turn out. He believed that it was destined for his life to end the way it did, with him being cursed and banished from Thebes. The Bible is the word of God for the Christians. There are many examples of free will throughout the Bible. Christians believe that God gave us free will to do as we please, but whatever we do should be ... ...s different in each society, the Greeks, Christians, and Romans were all effected in one way or another. Whether it was the gods controlling their lives or God watching over their lives, free will had a very strong imprint on how each society lived their life. Bibliography: Works Cited Genesis. The Bible. The Norton Anthology: World Masterpieces. Ed. Lawall. & Mack. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1999. 51-72. Merriam Webster’s Online Collegiate Dictionary. 2000. Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. 8 October 2000. www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary Sophocles. Oedipus the King. The Norton Anthology: World Masterpieces. Ed. Lawall. & Mack. New Tork: W.W. Norton & Co.,1999. 596-640. Virgil. The Aenied. The Norton Anthology: World Masterpieces. Ed. Lawall. & Mack. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1999. 814-895.

What is DNA Forensic

DNA forensics is a scientific analysis of evidence for crime scene investigations and other legal proceedings. To a DNA profile, scientists compare sequence In the genome that varies from person to person. Like a gene, a encoding genetic sequence is more likely to be match between relatives than between unrelated Individuals (Simon, Dickey, & Race). For example, In the case of a shooting In a Wild Buffalo Wings parking lot In Bear Delaware, police use forensic to link the two Burns and Evans in the case of a 23 year-old they shot.Burns and Evans met up with the 23 year-old to buy heroin from him. The drug dealer enters the car and was shot by Burns. Victim ran into a store and drove to Christiana Hospital in critical condition. Police went to Burns and Evans home were they searched the vehicle and found blood stains that Burns tried to clean up with bleach. Blood stains were visible at crime scene and matched victim that was shot. Another DNA application is a paternity test, my frien d had a baby and the father denied the child. Therefore, the court made the father take a paternity test by swabbing the side of his out.The test came back that he was the father and now he has to pay child support. Lastly, a man In Philadelphia raped a doctor. Surveillance cameras were able to get a picture of the person. Somebody called In with a tip and they went to the person Job. They took blood and hair samples and determines he did Indeed rape the doctor. Population evolution and microbial life is inherited traits through successive generation's overtime. Some examples would be a butterfly that was very colorful. Prior to this type of style, the butterfly used to be a dull color and it was most reverent.The dull butterfly would hide in flowers to avoid being attacked or eaten. But the pollution generated stained the dull color flowers to a bright color. Eventually the dull color butterfly was attack because it could no longer hide by the flowers, which made It less prevalent and made the bright color butterfly more predominant. This example shows how the population had evolved to a higher adaptive condition. Another example would be mutation, a lizard patterns duplicated over time to other lizards from the same family would be considered gene duplication.Lastly, someone an past DNA trait to one family member after another over time. For example, my mother had me and see pass me her traits/DNA. When I had my kids a passed down some of the traits from my mother and the cycle will continue when they have their kids. Biology and diversity refers to all of earth species. There are millions of species living on earth according to scientist. It is important that earth species continue to thrive and evolve because earth would be in danger if we loss biodiversity. The world ecosystem would collapse, food that humans need to fight off certain diseases and crops and plant would not exist.This would be the case because a population with decreased genetic diversity has less ability to evolve In response to environmental change. Also, the enormous genetic diversity of all the organisms on Earth has great potential benefit for people, too. Many researchers and biotechnology leaders are enthusiastic about the potential that genetic â€Å"prospecting† may also hold the key the spread of a deadly new strain of wheat steam rust, a fungal pathogen that has devastated harvests in eastern Africa and central Asia.At least 75% of the wheat varieties planted worldwide is susceptible to this pathogen, but researchers hope to mind a resistance gene in the wild relatives of wheat (Simon, Dickey, & Race). Plants have four stages of evolution. The first stage is bryophytes the lack true roots and leaves. Bryophytes also lack aligning, the wall-hardening material that enables other plants to stand tall. Without liquefied cell walls, bryophytes have weak upright support. The most familiar bryophytes are mosses (Simon, Dickey, & Race). The second one is fe rns seedless plants.Next is gymnosperm, pine trees also known as cone-bearing trees. Lastly, angiosperms bear seeds. Animals have eight life cycles such as meiosis, fertilization, mitosis, blastula, early gastrula, later gastrula, larva and metamorphosis. Population increases, over a specific period of time, in the number of individuals living in a country or region. Population can change throughout the years due to deaths, births and dispersal of individual from separate populations. When resources are functioning properly, the population will increase dramatically.For example, births, death, and environment are natural factors that can affect population growth. Another example of population growth is population loss due to endangerment or extinction. What is biomass and ecosystem? According to Campbell Essential Biology biomass is a major terrestrial or aquatic life zone, characterized by vegetarian type in terrestrial biomass and the physical environment in aquatic biomass and ec osystem is all the organism in a given area, along with the nonliving (biotic) factors with which they interact; a biological community and its physical environment (Simon, Dickey, & Race).The difference between the two is that ecosystem is a community and physical environment where as biomass major terrestrial or aquatic life zone. For example, the ecosystem of northern New York and California have similar plants and animal life, temperature, and amount of sunlight. They combine to make up the tollgate bimbo. Microbial life is short for microbe and it describes many organisms.

Nivea: Softening and Standardizing Global Markets

The brand's positioning also made it distinct from other products on the market: It was a multipurpose cream sold at a price that made it available to the masses, rather than to only the upper-class women who were the competition's target market. Over the years, Naive's positioning strategy has remained as simple and steadfast as the now- familiar blue-and-white package. Despite all the technological developments the company has Introduced In skin care products, and all the markets it has sold In, Naive's marketing always focuses on key brand benefits-?high quality, reasonable price, straightforward approach, and mild skin care.This commitment to the mainstream market and focus on multipurpose applications means that every product introduced under the Naive name has to conform to guidelines which ensure that everyone working on the brand around the world knows what it stands for. Naive's marketing strategy is well stated by Roll Sunnis, chairman of the Beresford Group: â€Å"The str ategy of concentration on exploiting market potentials and regional growth opportunities is to be continued. The same applies to moves into new market segments and to increased investment in research and development. Exploiting market potentials means constantly Introducing new products that meet current market needs and the needs of newly targeted market segments. One example from the past Is Naive's emphasis on health and active lifestyles as more women went to work In the 1 sass. Others Include the Introduction of sunscreen, skin protection, and tanning products to match the more active, outdoor lifestyles In vogue from the sass to today: plus products for every skin type and need. To meet the needs of new market segments, Naive expanded its product lines to include children and men.All these new products were guided by the Naive standards: each product must meet a basic need, be simple and uncomplicated, not offer to solve only one specific problem, be a quality leader, and be p riced such that consumers perceive a balanced cost-benefit relationship. Bed's new product strategy was honed in the sass when competitive challenges prompted the company to take steps to revivalist the brand. It used a two-pronged approach. First, to counteract perceptions hat Naive had an older, less dynamic Image, the company for the first time described specific product benefits In Its advertising.Before this, advertising had focused on the variety of settings In which each product could be used, Second, BFD Introduced additional products that would leverage the recognition and reputation of the Naive name In growing segments AT ten mar et K . Nines are sun-Dramas, sun as Naive Shower and Bath, Naive for Men, Naive Sun, Naive Hair Care, Naive Body, Naive Visage, and the recently introduced Naive Baby. In 1990 BFD internationalization its rand's by creating a worldwide name for each product category and implementing common packaging on a global basis.Moreover, all ads, regardless of the country in which they ran, had to evoke a common emotion, use the same typeface, incorporate the same kinds of people, and use a uniform Naive logo. The result is a highly standardized approach to global marketing. Rather than focusing on the individual differences among peoples around the globe, the firm focuses on the similarities. After all, as one company official notes, all people have skin and many people have he same needs and ideas. This leads to a direct approach and a high degree of consistency.When a firm operates in as many markets as BFD, consistency, simplicity, and focus on the same benefits not only create a universal brand image, they also reduce headaches. Many fewer marketing decisions have to be made. Standardized advertising campaigns need be adapted only slightly by translation into the local language. Because the costs can be spread around the globe, it's much less expensive to run a single global campaign rather than many separate regional ones. And m arketing control is much simpler and easier with a standardized program.Packaging costs are reduced and product recognition is very high when people encounter the product in other countries and cultural situations. The second element of the BFD strategy is exploiting regional growth opportunities. Doing so, however, may necessitate some adjustments to the standardized approach. Because Naive Creme is a European product, its appeal and marketing approach can be very similar in many parts of the globe. The United States, Canada, Latin America, and South America were all populated by European settlers.This produces some commonality in cultural background and light skin type, with the result that many products developed for the German market can be sold in these markets with little or no product or marketing adaptation. A focus on healthy, glowing skin will sell cosmetics in nearly all these markets. Of course, the company might use darker-haired models with more olive complexions in th e Latin and South American markets. And it might develop tailored sub-brands and programs for important sub-segments of all these markets.However, as Naive moves further away from this common European cultural base, its products may be less well suited to the market. This is particularly true in African nations, where a majority of people have much darker skin and may require different sorts of moisturizer and sunscreen products. In between the European and African markets are the Asian markets, which are characterized by yellow and frequently more pale complexions. Although Naive sells well in some Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Thailand, it sells less well in Japan.The difference in sales is attributable to both market and cultural conditions. In the past, Japanese markets were strongly protected and there was relatively little competition from non- domestic manufacturers. Unfortunately for Japanese merchants, the resulting high prices provided a strong lure to foreign produ cers. When BFD first entered the Japanese market, it was highly successful. But as Japanese markets have opened up, competition has increased, price maintenance has been abolished, and prices have fallen.As a result, BFD has reduced the number of products sold there, and focused on ten more pro Detailed ones. I nerve are cultural Territories Detente markets sun as Germany, the United States, and Japan. Germany and the United States are classified as â€Å"low-context countries,† which means that ads should state explicitly what the product will do. Japan, in contrast, is a â€Å"high-context† country in which product claims do not need to be stated explicitly. Rather, because Japanese consumers want to form relationships with companies, the company itself should be prominently featured in advertising.If the company is worthy of consideration, then the quality of TTS products is assumed to be high. Thus, an advertising campaign prepared for Germany requires more than Ju st a little tweaking in order to promote products successfully in Japan. All these differences argue for more adaptation of Naive products and marketing to match cultural and market differences outside Germany and the European market. However, as economies develop, they tend to acquire many of the same tastes as developed economies. An example is Russia, where men -? especially younger men-?are beginning to spend more on cosmetics.They are eying many of the same brands as their Western European counterparts-?Gillette, Naive for Men, Old Spice, and a few designer brands such as Christian Dior, Airman, Boss Lance, Arms, Guy Larch, Gucci, and Pace Arabian. Price is not the crucial variable in the purchase decision-?men are buying based on product characteristics such as fragrance and brand awareness. For companies such as Naive and Gillette, which are willing to spend on advertising, the market seems quite responsive. The bottom line is the increasing homogeneities that argues against customization of arduous for specific markets.Speaking of bottom lines, Beresford has done very well with its own. Total sales for Beresford cosmetics business grew at 5. 7 percent in 1996, despite decreased sales of the company's higher priced Label and Atria lines and lower sales in Japan. The Naive line grew by 13. 3 percent, far outpacing the more expensive cosmetics and skin care products. However, growth around the world has been uneven. Although Bed's brands experienced double-digit growth in Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, Southern Europe, and South America, sales growth withinGermany and some Northern European countries has been much lower due to the difficult economic situation. Naive held its own in the United States, but grew by 36. 3 percent in Mexico. Despite strong growth in Thailand and Indonesia, sales in Asia and Australia fell by 10. 4 percent, affected by the downward trend in Japan and China. Compounding the Japanese losses are unfavorable exchange rates between th e yen and the mark, which reduced earnings even further. Even so, although the overall global picture for Beresford is quite good, it's still Just a little fuzzy in some parts of the world.

A Research Paper

The Department of Education pronounces the addition of two more years in the basic education of students, which according to them will benefit not only the Filipino youth but all the Filipino in the Philippines. (Luistro, 2010) The administration asserts that with the implementation of such program, the problem of unemployment in the country will be resolved. In as much as employment in the Philippines is concerned, the K12 education also responds to the fact that most countries in the world already have the same plan in their educational institutions.With this, the standards of these countries go a notch higher than what the country has, thus, creating an expansion in the global competency. (DepEd, 2010) â€Å"We need to add two years to our basic education. Those who can afford pay up to fourteen years of schooling before university. Thus, their children are getting into the  Ã‚   best universities and the best jobs after graduation. I want at least 12 years for our public school children to give them an even chance at succeeding. † (Aquino III, 2011) K12 educational systems are additional years to secondary level. This research contains some information about curriculum of K12.This means that the present four years in high school will be called Junior High School and additional two years as senior High School. The model, which is being proposed, is K-6-4-2 where K means Kindergarten (5 years old), 6 means six years in elementary (6 to 11 years old), 4 means four years in Junior High School (12 to 15 years old) and 2 means two years in Senior High School (16 to 17 years old). (DepEd, n. d). Kindergarten will start in school year 2011 – 2012. The new and enhanced curriculum in Grade 1 and first year high school will start in school year 2012 – 2013.The first year senior high school or the eleventh year will begin in school year 2016 – 2017. The first graduates of the 12- year curriculum will be in 2018. (DepEd, n. d). Enhancing the quality of basic education in the Philippines is urgent and critical. The poor quality of basic education is reflected in the low achievement scores of Filipino students. One reason is that students do not get adequate instructional time or task. Our children deserve to receive the best education our country can provide for them and our economy depends on an educated and skilled workforce to be successful in the global market.B. Statement of the Problem This study aims to answer these following questions: 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the K-12 program or the additional 2 years to Basic Education? 2. Will the parents agree or disagree to the K- 12 program? C. Significance of the Study Parents of the students. This research would be able to help the parents of the students who are affected by the K-12 program, this will give them an idea of what will be the advantages and disadvantages of the program, and if it will help their children grow from the academic nature.Students. The students will benefit from the study by letting them know how they are going to be able to understand the addition of 2 years from their schooling. Students will know how it will provide a better quality of education to them. Teachers. This study will benefit the teachers from the school, for them to be prepared for the additional two years to the basic education. It is important for them to know the advantages and disadvantages of the program, because they will be the one providing the knowledge to the children. School.This research will also benefit the school, so they will anticipate the additional cost to the program, also the additional teachers and everything that they should be anticipating for. D. Scope and Limitation This study focuses only on the perception of the parents’ students affected by the K-12 program since it has been implemented this year the study will only focus on what the parents think and how it will affect them. It will also focus on the circumstances that will put one in favorable position, and those circumstances that will put one in unfavorable position. The study will only ask the parents about K-6-4-2 and not go beyond asking them if they’ll still let their children continue to study or not. E. Materials and Methods This research utilizes the descriptive method since the researcher aims to discuss and to know the perception of parents regarding to the additional years of basic education. The main goal of this type of research is to describe the data and characteristic what is being studied. The idea behind this type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations.Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the causes behind a situation. Descriptive research is mainly done when a researcher wants to gain a better understanding of a topic. Interview, books and newspaper were researchers’ major instrument in gathering   Ã‚  Ã‚  information and were augmented with other data collected through readings E. Definition of Terms Department of Education. It is the executive department of the Philippine government responsible for the management and governing of the Philippine system of basic education. (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Department_of_Education_(Philippines)) Education.

Dividend Policys of Companies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Dividend Policys of Companies - Essay Example Companies which are in stages of growth or in initial stages normally have a sparing dividend policy because they reinvest or plow back much of their earnings into the company to experience growth and development (Financial Dictionary 2011). Established companies such as blue chips, Unilever and Wal-Mart being some of them, are inclined to relatively liberal dividend payout policies and grant dividends regularly on quarterly or half-yearly basis. For instance, Unilever (bearing a symbol of UL and listed on NYSE) pays a regular dividend every quarter; the most recent payout has been an amount of US$ 0.307 on November 8, 2011. Similarly, Wal-Mart paid a quarterly dividend of US$ 0.365 recently on December 07, 2011; a payment every quarter is being followed by the company. Dividends payment do assure shareholder satisfaction but some research, particularly Modigliani and Miller (MM)’s proposition on irrelevance depicts that a company’s performance and profitability is not affected by its dividend policy. Talking from the shareholder perspective, shareholders are more satisfied when they receive regular flows of dividends, even in small amounts but the factor of regularity ensures their confidence in the company. An irregular or erratic pattern of dividend payouts can lead to bad image for the company and thus an adverse effect on its share in the market. Considering potential investors and their attitude towards a company’s dividend payment patterns or dividend policy, people, according to their stage of investment that is their age, invest accordingly. In the case of stocks, younger or aggressive risk taker individuals invest in growth stocks or stocks that induce capital gains rather than a stream of dividends. Investors in retirement stages or in the later faction of their lives invest in less risky income stocks which payout dividends on a continuous basis forming a regular fixed income. Mini Case – Topic: Dividend Policy Company Na me: Wal-Mart Stores Inc. Description Wal-Mart was founded in the year 1962, with the inauguration of the first Wal-Mart discount store in Rogers, Ark. The company became public as Wal-Mart Stores Inc. on October 31, 1969 and its shares began trading on OTC (Over The Trading) markets in 1970 and were listed on NYSE (New York Stock Exchange) two years later in 1972. The first dividend was declared on March 26, 1974. Wal-Mart Stores Inc. is the 18th largest publicly listed company according to The Forbes 2010 list of Global 2000 big publicly listed companies (The Forbes 2011). The company caters to customers and members more than 200 million times weekly at retail units more than 9,880 under 60 different banners in more than 28 countries. With the world’s highest sales revenue of US$ 405 billion, it employs more than 2 million employees worldwide. Dividend Policy of Wal-Mart Stores Inc Before discussing about Wal-Mart’s dividend policy, its payout history has to be taken into account; the table below depicts the same: Dividend Payment History – Wal-Mart Stores Inc Year 2010 2009 2008 Dividend Per Share* (DPS) (In US$) 1.09 0.95 0.88 Total Dividend (In US$ million) 4,217 3,746 3,586 Dividend Yield (IN US$) 2.1% 1.9% 2.1% *These dividends are paid in four portions on a quarterly basis such as US$0.3025 paid on January 31, 2011. The above table depicts the